All Grammer Rules
Grammar Rules Handbook
Master the nuances of English grammar with clear rules and practical examples.
Rule 1:
Each and Every
Meaning: Each indicates an individual sense (one by one from a group). Every indicates a group sense (all together).
Usage Difference 1 (Number): Each can be used for two or more than two people/things. Every is used only for more than two people/things.
Correct: “I have a book in each hand.”
Usage Difference 2 (Parts of Speech): Each can be used as both a pronoun and an adjective. Every is only an adjective; it cannot function as a pronoun and must be followed by a noun.
Example (Adjective – Each): “Each student is working very hard.”
Incorrect (Every as pronoun): “Every of my students is very talented.”
Correct (Every as adjective): “Every student is very talented.”
Usage Difference 3 (Abstract Nouns): Each cannot be used with abstract nouns. Every can be used with abstract nouns.
Correct: “I have every reason to be happy.”
Verb and Adjective Agreement (Common Concept for Each, Every, Either, Neither): Each, Every, Either, and Neither always take a singular verb and a singular adjective.
Correct: “Each student is preparing for his exam.” (or “her exam”)
Noun Agreement (Common Concept for Each, Every): If directly followed by a noun, the noun is singular. If followed by “of the,” the noun is plural.
Example: “Each of my students is working very hard.”
Rule 2:
Both
Concept 1 (Conjunction): Both is always followed by the conjunction “and,” never by “as well as.”
Correct: “Both Ram and Shyam.”
Concept 2 (Negation): Both is never used with “not.” To express negation, use “Neither…nor” instead.
Correct: “Neither Ram nor Shyam is coming.”
Concept 3 (Possessive Adjective): A possessive adjective always comes after “both,” never before it.
Correct: “Both my students.”
Rule 3:
Who, Whom, Which, That
Who vs. Whom: Who is a subjective pronoun (functions as the subject of a verb, like ‘he’ or ‘she’). Whom is an objective pronoun (functions as the object of a verb or preposition, like ‘him’ or ‘her’).
Example (Whom): “She met the person whom God likes.”
Usage: Both Who and Whom are used for humans and domestic animals.
Which: Used for non-domestic animals and non-living things.
That: Can be used for humans, animals, and non-living things; it has no restrictions. Often used when the antecedent refers to both a person/animal and a thing.
Specific Phrases Always Taking “That”: “The Same,” “None,” “All,” “Any,” “The Only,” “Much,” “No,” “The Little,” “The Few,” “Something,” “Anything,” “Nothing,” and Superlative Degrees. These words are always followed by “that” as a relative pronoun.
Correct: “This is the same book that you were reading.”
Example: “This is the best that I can do for you.”
Whoever/Whomever (When no antecedent): If there is no noun or pronoun directly preceding the relative pronoun, use whoever or whomever.
Rule 4:
Conditional Sentences (Golden Rules)
Conditional sentences consist of a condition (if-clause) and a result (main clause).
Type 1 (Real/Possible Conditions):
- Condition: Simple Present Tense (V1 or V1+s/es).
- Result: Will/Can/May/Shall + Base form of verb (V1).
Type 2 (Unreal/Hypothetical Conditions in Present/Future):
- Condition: Simple Past Tense (V2).
- Result: Would + Base form of verb (V1).
Type 3 (Unreal/Hypothetical Conditions in Past):
- Condition: Past Perfect Tense (Had + V3).
- Result: Would + Have + Past Participle (V3).
Exception: Zero Conditional (Universal Truths/Facts): If the sentence expresses a universal truth or a general fact, both clauses are in the Simple Present Tense.
Rule 5:
One of the / Each of the
General Rule (Noun): One of the and Each of the are always followed by a plural noun.
Concept 1 (With Relative Pronoun): If followed by a relative pronoun (who, which, that), the verb is plural.
Concept 2 (Without Relative Pronoun): If not followed by a relative pronoun, the verb is singular.
Exception (‘Only One of the’): If “Only One of the” is used, the verb is always singular, regardless of whether a relative pronoun is present.
Rule 6:
Units (Number, Unit, Noun/Adjective)
Concept 1 (Number + Unit + Noun/Adjective): When a numerical quantity is followed by a unit and then a noun or adjective, the unit is always singular.
Example: “She gave me two 500-rupee notes.”
Concept 2 (Number + Unit, without Noun/Adjective): If only a number and a unit are present (not followed by a noun/adjective), the unit’s form depends on its clarity:
- If the unit is sufficient/self-explanatory (meaning is clear), it is plural.
- If the unit is not sufficient/self-explanatory (meaning is unclear without another noun), it is singular.
Incorrect (Not Sufficient): “10 millions had been found there.”
Correct (Not Sufficient): “10 million had been found there.”
Concept 3 (Indefinite Units – Hundreds of, Thousands of): Used for indefinite large numbers. The units are always plural. The units must be arranged in ascending order.
Correct: “Thousands of lakhs of people.”
Concept 4 (Random Units – Glassful, Spoonful): These units are pluralized by adding -s to the end of the word.
Rule 9:
Since & For
Concept 1 (Duration vs. Point of Start): For indicates a duration or period of time. Since indicates a point of start.
Example (Since): “He has been learning English since childhood.”
Concept 2 (Tense with For/Since): If “for” or “since” denote time, they must be preceded by a Perfect Tense or a Perfect Continuous Tense.
Correct: “I have taught English for two years.”
Concept 3 (Tense After Since): The clause immediately following “since” (when it indicates a point of start) must be in Simple Past Tense (V2).
Correct: “She has been living here since my father moved to Delhi.”
Rule 10:
Two Past Actions
When two actions occur in the past:
- The older (earlier) action is expressed in the Past Perfect Tense (Had + V3).
- The newer (later) action is expressed in the Simple Past Tense (V2).
Example (After): “I finished the book after I had returned from college.”
Rule 11:
Possessive Adjectives with Gerunds
A possessive adjective (my, your, his, her, its, their, our) is always used before a gerund.
Gerund: A verb ending in -ing that functions as a noun.
Example: “I know his reading every night has helped him pass the test.”
Rule 12:
Inversion of Sentences
Normal Statement: Subject + Helping Verb + Main Verb (e.g., “I am teaching”).
Inversion: The verb (helping or main) comes before the subject. Inversion occurs when a sentence starts with an adverb and no comma follows that initial adverb.
Types of Inversion:
- Complete Inversion: Adverb + Main Verb + Subject.
- Partial Inversion: Adverb + Helping Verb + Subject + Main Verb.
Example (Partial): “Never have I seen such a beautiful place.”
Common Adverbs Requiring Inversion at Start:
- No Sooner…than: Always requires inversion after “No sooner”.
- Hardly/Rarely/Scarcely/Barely…when: Always requires inversion after these adverbs.
- Neither/Nor: When starting a sentence.
Correct: “No sooner had I entered the class than it began to rain.”
Example: “Hardly had I begun to speak when I was stopped.”
Example: “Neither does she.”
Rule 13:
Article ‘The’ with Common Places (Primary vs. Secondary Purpose)
For common places like school, college, church, temple, jail, market, hospital, bed, etc.:
- If the place is used for its primary purpose (the reason it exists), do not use the article ‘the’.
- If the place is used for a secondary purpose (not its main function), use the article ‘the’.
Example (Secondary): “He goes to the temple.”
Example (Secondary – Landmark): “His home is just beside the temple.”
Rule 14:
Correlative Conjunctions (No Sooner, Hardly, Scarcely, Barely)
- No Sooner is always paired with “than” (T.H.A.N.).
- Hardly, Scarcely, Barely, Rarely are always paired with “when”.
Example: “Hardly had I begun to speak when I was stopped.”
Rule 15:
Verbs Requiring Objects or Reflexive Pronouns
Some verbs must be followed by an object. If no object is explicitly stated, a reflexive pronoun (myself, himself, herself, etc.) must be used.
Reflexive Pronouns: Used when the action of the verb reflects back on the subject.
Incorrect (Without object): “I enjoyed at the party.”
Example (With reflexive pronoun): “I enjoyed myself at the party.”
Common Verbs requiring an object/reflexive pronoun: Enjoy, Avail, Absent, Pride, Adjust, Reconcile, Quit, Amuse, Resign, Avenge, Assert, Apply, Adapt.
Correct: “I availed myself of the opportunity.”
Rule 16:
Verbs that NEVER Take Reflexive Pronouns
Some verbs never take a reflexive pronoun because the action is inherently performed by the subject on themselves.
Common Verbs: Keep, Stop, Turn, Qualify, Bathe, Move, Rest, Hide, Dress, Start, Gather, Burst, Grow, Open, Feed, Make, Sell, Spread.
Correct: “He hid in the cave.”
Incorrect: “She has qualified herself for the post.”
Correct: “She has qualified for the post.”
Rule 17:
Subject-Verb Agreement with Specific Conjunctions
When two subjects are connected by phrases like As well as, Together with, Along with, In addition to, Not, Unlike, With, Accompanied by, But, Besides, Led by, Governed by, Run by, the verb always agrees with the first subject mentioned.
Example: “His parents not the child are guilty.”
Rule 18:
Noun vs. Verb Forms (Advice/Advise, Practice/Practise, Belief/Believe)
Advice (CE) vs. Advise (SE):
- Advice (noun, सलाह): “I gave him a piece of advice.”
- Advise (verb, सलाह देना): “I advise you to practice a lot.”
Practice (CE) vs. Practise (SE):
- Practice (noun, अभ्यास): “Practice makes a man perfect.”
- Practise (verb, अभ्यास करना): “I practise daily.”
Belief (F) vs. Believe (VE):
- Belief (noun, विश्वास): “It is my belief that my students are very talented.”
- Believe (verb, विश्वास करना): “I believe my students are very talented.”
Rule 19:
Comparison of Pronouns
Comparisons must be between grammatically similar cases.
- Subjective Case (I, he, she, they, etc.) is compared with Subjective Case.
- Objective Case (me, him, her, them, etc.) is compared with Objective Case.
Correct: “I am as tall as he.”
When a sentence allows for both subjective and objective comparison, the meaning changes based on the pronoun chosen.
- If “he” (subjective): Implies “My parents love me more than he loves me.”
- If “him” (objective): Implies “My parents love me more than they love him.”
Avoid comparisons between inherently dissimilar things.
Correct: “She likes chocolates more than I.”
Rule 20:
Who vs. Whom (Recap)
- Who is used as the subject of a verb.
- Whom is used as the object of a verb or preposition.
Example (Whom): “Mr. Dixit consulted an astrologer whom she met.”
Rule 21:
Words that NEVER Take Possessive Adjectives
Certain nouns (e.g., Separation, Excuse, Mention, Favor, Pardon, Leave, Report, Sight) are never preceded by a possessive adjective. Instead, use constructions with “of” or “from.”
Correct: “Separation from you pains me a lot.”
Incorrect: “I want your favor.”
Correct: “I want a favor from you.”
Rule 22:
Reciprocal Pronouns (Each Other, One Another)
Reciprocal pronouns express mutual action.
- Each Other: Used for two people or things.
- One Another: Used for more than two people or things.
Incorrect (One Another): “All citizens should love each other.”
Correct (One Another): “All citizens should love one another.”
Rule 23:
Fixed Pairs (Seldom…or never, Little…if anything)
Certain adverbial phrases always come in specific fixed pairs:
- Seldom or never.
- Seldom if ever.
- Little or nothing.
- Little if anything.
Correct: “Seldom or never did he come to my house.”
Rule 24:
Much/Very with Adjectives/Participles
Very:
- Used with positive degree adjectives (e.g., very beautiful, very quick).
- Used with present participles (V1+ing) functioning as adjectives (e.g., very interesting).
Much:
- Used with comparative degree adjectives (e.g., much smarter, much quicker).
- Used with past participles (V3) functioning as adjectives (e.g., much interested).
Example: “He is much interested.”
Special Phrases: “The very best” means “really the best”. “Much the best” implies “no doubt, definitely the best”.
Rule 25:
Position of ‘Enough’
Enough as an Adjective: When enough modifies a noun or pronoun, it comes before the noun/pronoun.
Enough as an Adverb: When enough modifies an adjective or another adverb, it comes after the adjective/adverb.
Correct: “She is beautiful enough to win…”
Rule 26:
Use of ‘As’ with Verbs of Designating/Describing
Verbs that take ‘As’: Defined, Treated, Regarded, Described, Respected, Depicted, Portrayed, Viewed, Known.
Verbs that DO NOT take ‘As’: Elect, Name, Think, Consider, Call, Make, Choose, Appoint.
Correct: “She was elected chair…”
Incorrect: “The teacher called him as stupid.”
Correct: “The teacher called him stupid.”
Rule 27:
‘Although’ Conjunction
Although is never followed by “but.” It can optionally be followed by “yet” or more commonly by a comma.
Correct (Traditional): “Although he is smart, yet he fails every time.”
Correct (Modern): “Although he is smart, he fails every time.”
Rule 28:
Verbs Not Used in Continuous Tenses (Stative Verbs)
Certain verbs (stative verbs) describing states, perceptions, feelings, or possessions are generally not used in any continuous tense.
Categories:
- Possession: own, belong, have (meaning possess), include, possess, owe, contain, comprise, consist.
- Perception (Senses): see, smell, taste, hear, feel, appear, seem, notice.
- Feelings/Mental States: love, hate, like, dislike, want, wish, know, understand, believe, agree, think (when meaning ‘believe’ or ‘opine’).
Correct: “I own a car.”
Incorrect: “This sauce is tasting strange.”
Correct: “This sauce tastes strange.”
Incorrect: “I am loving it.”
Correct: “I love it.”
Rule 29:
Use of Perfect Tenses with Time Adverbs
If a task is completed and certain time adverbs are used, a Perfect Tense is required.
Common Adverbs: Already, So Far, Yet, Just, Always, Ever, Never, Now, Just Now, Until Now, Recently, Up to Now, Up to the Present.
Tense Choice:
- Present Perfect: For actions completed recently or with relevance to the present.
- Past Perfect: For actions completed before another past action (past of past).
Correct: “Have you ever seen the Taj Mahal?”
Example: “The concert had already begun by the time we arrived.”
Rule 30:
Collective Nouns
Collective Noun: A single name for a group (e.g., army, jury, audience).
Verb Agreement:
- If the collective noun’s members act as a single, unified unit, the verb is singular.
- If the collective noun’s members act as separate individuals or are divided, the verb is plural.
Example (Separate): “The audience are taking their seats.”
Incorrect: “The jury is divided in opinion.”
Correct: “The jury are divided in opinion.”
Exceptions (Always Plural): Police, Vermin, Cattle, Clergy, Gentry, Poultry, Folk, Peasantry, Infantry, Cavalry, People (meaning persons).
Rule 31:
Fixed Prepositions (To)
Certain verbs and adjectives are always followed by the preposition “to.”
Common Words:
- Prefer: Always followed by “to,” never “over” or “than”.
- Known (in passive voice): Always followed by “to,” never “by”.
- Married (in passive voice): Always followed by “to,” never “with” or “by”.
- Words ending in -ior: Superior, Junior, Senior, Inferior, etc.
- Other words: Addicted, Ancillary.
Example: “Ram is known to me.”
Example: “Sita is married to Ram.”
Example: “Alcohol is injurious to health.”
Rule 32:
Positive Degree Comparisons (As…as, So…as)
Used to show that two things are equal in a certain quality.
As…as: Can be used in both positive and negative sentences.
Example: “Ram is not as good as Sita.”
So…as: Can be used only in negative sentences.
Correct: “Ram is not so good as Jane.”
Rule 33:
‘Times’ for Comparison
When a numerical multiple like “times” is used for comparison, it must be followed by an adjective in its positive degree, not comparative or superlative.
This is because “times” itself indicates the comparison.
Correct: “This book is three times as large as that book.”
Rule 34:
Indirect Speech (Always a Statement)
Indirect speech (reported speech) is always structured as a statement, not a question. In a statement, the subject always comes before the helping verb.
Correct: “He asked me what my name was.”
Incorrect: “He asked me where are you going.”
Correct: “He asked me where I was going.”
Rule 35:
Subject-Verb Agreement with ‘Either…or’, ‘Neither…nor’, ‘Not only…but also’, ‘Or’
When two subjects are connected by Either…or, Neither…nor, Not only…but also, or Or, the verb always agrees with the nearest subject.
Example: “Not only the teachers but also the principal is happy.”
Rule 36:
Comparing Two Qualities of One Thing
When comparing two qualities of the same person or thing, use the structure “more + positive degree + than + positive degree” instead of two comparative adjectives.
Correct: “Ram is more tall than smart.”
Incorrect: “This pen is redder than white.”
Correct: “This pen is more red than white.”
Rule 37:
‘More than one’ / ‘Many a’
- More than one: Takes a singular noun and a singular verb.
- Many a: Takes a singular noun and a singular verb.
- A great many / A good many: Take a plural noun and a plural verb.
Example (Many a): “Many a student is absent today.”
Example (A great many): “A great many students are absent today.”
Rule 38:
‘Doubt’ and ‘Doubtful’ Conjunctions
- If there is doubt (doubt/doubtful): Use “if” or “whether” as the conjunction.
- If there is no doubt (no doubt/not doubtful): Use “that” as the conjunction.
Example (No Doubt): “I have no doubt that it will rain.”
Incorrect: “He has no doubt if Shyam is his best friend.”
Correct: “He has no doubt that Shyam is his best friend.”
Rule 39:
Sequence of Tenses (Direct/Indirect Speech)
If the main clause (reporting verb) is in a past tense, the verb in the subordinate clause (reported speech) must also be in a past tense.
Correct: “I said that I had done it.”
Exceptions (Universal Truths, Facts, Proverbs, Habitual Actions): This rule does not apply to universal truths, general facts, proverbs, or habitual actions. These statements remain in Simple Present Tense.
Example: “Rohit said that where there is a will, there is a way.”
Correct: “He told me that the honey was sweet.”
Rule 40:
Little/A Little/The Little & Few/A Few/The Few
For Uncountable Nouns (e.g., water, milk, knowledge):
- A Little: “Some, but not much” (positive sense).
- Little: “Hardly any, not at all” (negative sense).
- The Little: “All that is available” (neutral sense).
Example (Little): “There is little milk available.”
Example (The Little): “The little milk that was available, I prepared tea from it.”
For Countable Nouns (e.g., students, books, friends):
- A Few: “Some, but not many” (positive sense).
- Few: “Hardly any, not at all” (negative sense).
- The Few: “All that are available” (neutral sense).
Example (Few): “Few members attended the meeting.”
Example (The Few): “The few friends he had, he lost all of them.”
Some & Any: Can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns, singular and plural.
- Any: Used in negative sentences and questions (where the answer is uncertain).
- Some: Used in positive sentences, and in questions where a positive answer is expected.
Example (Some): “Would you like some water?”
Rule 41:
Preposition + Objective Case of Pronoun
After any preposition, the objective case of a pronoun (me, us, him, her, them, etc.) is always used.
Correct: “There is a friendship between you and him.”
When “but” means “except” (functioning as a preposition), it also takes the objective case.
The objective case is also used after verbs.
Rule 42:
Order of Pronouns
Normal Order (Good/Neutral Actions): When multiple pronouns are used for positive or neutral actions, the standard order is 2-3-1 (Second person, Third person, First person).
Order for Mistakes/Wrongdoings: When multiple pronouns are used to admit a mistake or wrongdoing, the order is 1-2-3 (First person, Second person, Third person).
Plural Pronouns: If all pronouns are plural (we, you, they), the order is also 1-2-3 (even for normal cases).
Rule 43:
Superfluous Expressions
Avoid using redundant or unnecessary words that do not add meaning to a phrase.
“Previous records” → “Records”
“Wet water” → “Water”
“Suppose if” → “Suppose” or “If”
“Retreat back” → “Retreat”
“Reborn again” → “Reborn”
“Mutual agreement” → “Agreement”
“Forbid/Prohibit/Prevent…not” → (Negative words don’t need “not”)
“Coward man/person” → “Coward”
“Bag and baggage with” → “Bag and baggage”
“Passing marks” → “Pass marks”
“Suddenly came across” → “Came across”
“Final destination” → “Destination”
“Past history” → “History”
“Return back” → “Return”
“Coming future” → “Future”
“Reason…because” → Use either “Reason” or “Because”
“Enter into” (for physical entry) → “Enter”
“English teacher/Maths teacher” → “Teacher of English/Maths”
“Birthday date/Date of birth date” → “Birthday” or “Date of birth”
“Cousin brother/sister” → “Cousin”
“Cheater” (as noun) → “Cheat”
Rule 44:
Possessive Apostrophe (‘s)
Showing Possession: Use apostrophe + s (‘s) to show possession (e.g., Ram’s car).
Hissing Sound Exception: If a singular noun already ends in ‘s’ and makes a hissing sound, only add the apostrophe (‘), not the extra ‘s’.
Non-Living Things: Do not use ‘s with non-living things to show possession. Use “of” instead.
Correct: “The cap of the bottle is damaged.”
Exceptions (Non-living things that take ‘s): Time (today’s newspaper), Weight (a kilogram’s weight), Distance (an hour’s journey), Place (India’s weather), Idioms (at a stone’s throw), Heavenly bodies (the Sun’s rays), Personification (Nature’s call, bottle’s tears).
Possessive Pronouns: Possessive pronouns never take an apostrophe (e.g., yours, hers, its, theirs, ours).
Correct: “Yours sincerely.”
Rule 45:
Past Point of Time
If a past point of time (e.g., yesterday, last week, five years ago) is explicitly stated in a sentence, the verb must be in the Simple Past Tense (V2).
Correct: “I went there yesterday.”
Example: “The company’s shares dived by 90 points… last week.”
Rule 46:
Words Not Used with ‘Most’ (Absolute Adjectives)
Some adjectives describe absolute qualities and cannot be modified by words like “most,” “more,” or “completely” to form comparative or superlative degrees.
Common Words: Excellent, Unique, Perfect, Ideal, Entire, Chief, Round, Total, Complete, Universal, Extreme, Final, Supreme, Absolute, Impossible, Right, Wrong, Empty, Full.
Correct: “She is an excellent teacher.”
Incorrect: “He is completely perfect.”
Correct: “He is perfect.”
Rule 47:
‘Quite’ (Adverb) vs. ‘Quiet’ (Adjective) & ‘Quite’ with ‘All’
Quiet (Q.U.I.E.T.): An adjective meaning “silent” or “calm”.
Quite (Q.U.I.T.E.): An adverb meaning “completely” or “to a considerable extent”.
‘Quite’ and ‘All’ cannot be used together as “quite” already implies completeness, making “all” redundant.
Correct: “He is quite well.”
Rule 48:
Ago vs. Before
Ago: Used when only one event is mentioned, typically with the Simple Past Tense, referring to a point in time prior to the present.
Before: Used when two past events are mentioned, indicating which event happened earlier. The earlier action takes Past Perfect, and the later action takes Simple Past.
Rule 49:
Common and Split Possession
Common Possession: When multiple people jointly own the same item(s), the apostrophe + s (‘s) is placed only after the last noun in the series. The possessed noun can be singular or plural.
Example: “Ram and Shyam’s cars are being decorated.”
Split Possession: When multiple people individually own different items, the apostrophe + s (‘s) is placed after each noun in the series. The possessed noun must be plural.
Incorrect: “Ram’s and Shyam’s car.”
Rule 50:
It’s vs. Its
- It’s: This is a contraction for “it is” or “it has”.
- Its: This is a possessive adjective meaning “belonging to it”.
Example (Its): “The child is carrying its book.”
Rule 51:
A Number of vs. The Number of
- A Number of: Means “many” or “a lot of.” It takes a plural noun and a plural verb.
- The Number of: Refers to the specific quantity or count. It takes a plural noun but a singular verb.
Example (The Number of): “The number of students is 50.”
Rule 52:
‘It is High Time / It is Time’
When followed by a subject: If phrases like “It is high time” or “It is time” are followed by a subject, the verb must be in the Simple Past Tense (V2).
When followed by ‘to’: If these phrases are followed by “to + verb,” the verb remains in its base form (V1).
Rule 53:
‘Angry’ and ‘Annoyed’ Prepositions
- Angry/Annoyed with: Used when expressing anger or annoyance towards a person.
- Angry/Annoyed at: Used when expressing anger or annoyance towards a thing, situation, or behavior.
Example: “I am angry at his behavior.”
Example: “The local residents were angry at the lack of parking spaces.”
Rule 54:
‘Know’ with Interrogative Words
When “know” is used to convey knowledge about a process, method, or fact that is typically answered by a question word (how, when, why, where, what), that question word must be included.
Correct: “I know how to swim.”
Example: “I don’t know what all the fuss is about.”
Rule 55:
Fixed Pairs (Else…but, Other…than, Rather…than)
- Else…but: “Else” is always followed by “but”.
- Other…than: “Other” is always followed by “than” (T.H.A.N.).
- Rather…than: “Rather” is always followed by “than” (T.H.A.N.).
Example: “He met no other person than Ram.”
Example: “I would rather stay at home this evening than go out.”
Rule 56:
‘Sort/Type/Kind’ Agreement
- Singular: Sort, Type, Kind (singular nouns) take a singular verb.
- Plural: Sorts, Types, Kinds (plural nouns) take a plural verb.
Rule 57:
‘In’, ‘Inside’, ‘Into’ & ‘Enter’
- In: Used for being inside an area or volume.
- Inside: Used for the action of going from outside to inside.
- Into: Used for the action of going from outside to inside, OR to indicate a change of form or state.
Example (Inside): “I came inside the class.”
Example (Into – change of form): “Water turns into ice.”
Example (Into – change of state): “He jumped into the well.”
Enter:
- Physical Entry: When “enter” means to go physically inside a place, no preposition is used after it.
- Signing an Agreement: “Enter into” is a phrasal verb meaning to sign an agreement or treaty.
Correct: “He entered the house.”
Example (Agreement): “He entered into an agreement with Ram.”
Phrases:
- Inside out: Can mean “reversed” or “completely familiar with something.”
- Upside down: Means “inverted” or “turned over.”
Rule 58:
‘By’ vs. ‘With’ (Agent/Instrument)
- By: Used to indicate the agent (the doer of an action, typically a living being), especially in passive voice.
- With: Used to indicate the instrument (the tool used to perform an action, typically a non-living thing).
Example (With – Instrument): “He hit the dog with a stick.”
Exceptions for ‘By’: To express a deadline, or to ask about time on a watch.
Exception for ‘On’: Walking: “We walk on foot” (not “by foot”).
Rule 59:
‘Start/Begin/Commence’ with Time/Day
When verbs like start, begin, or commence refer to the beginning of an event on a specific day, use the preposition “on.”
Do not use “from” in this context.
Correct: “The exams start on Monday.”
Rule 60:
‘To’ with V1 vs. ‘To’ with V1+ing (Gerund/Infinitive)
- To + V1 (Infinitive): Used to express purpose or an action.
- To + V1+ing (Gerund): Used when ‘to’ is part of a fixed phrase or phrasal verb, and it functions like a preposition followed by a noun (gerund).
Common Phrases Always Followed by a Gerund (V1+ing): Used to, Accustomed to, Addicted to, With a view to, Look forward to, Given to, Prone to, Devoted to, Dedicated to, In addition to, Confess to, Dispose to, Come to.
Example: “I look forward to hearing from you soon.”
Rule 61:
Articles ‘A’ and ‘An’ (Sound-based)
The choice between ‘a’ and ‘an’ is determined by the sound of the word immediately following the article, not its spelling.
- ‘An’: Used before words beginning with a vowel sound.
- ‘A’: Used before words beginning with a consonant sound.
Example (A): “A university” (starts with ‘yoo’ sound). “A B.Tech candidate” (starts with ‘bee’ sound).
Rule 62:
Article ‘The’ (Usage)
Used before:
- Unique/Specific Entities: Geographical features (mountain ranges, rivers, oceans, seas, deserts), famous monuments, newspapers, religious books.
- Specific Countries: Whose names include words like “United,” “Republic,” “Kingdom,” or which are plural.
- Superlative Degree of adjectives.
- Comparative Degree (Two Cases): Parallel increase/decrease OR Selection (one out of two).
- Metaphor: When one thing is compared to another.
- Proper Noun + Common Noun.
- Celestial Bodies.
- Organizations/Government Bodies.
Example (Superlative): “The best book.”
Example (Comparative): “The harder you work, the better results you get.”
Example (Metaphor): “She is the Mother Teresa of our class.”
Example (Organization): “The WHO.”
Rule 63:
Article ‘The’ (Omission)
General Rule: Do not use ‘the’ when referring to things in a general sense, or before most proper nouns that are not unique or part of specific categories.
Common Omissions: Names of cities, most countries, continents, streets, single lakes/bays/islands, individual mountain peaks, sports, seasons, languages (unless referring to the people), drinks, meals, God (general), life (general), money (general).
Exception (Particularization): If any of these general items are particularized or pointed out, then ‘the’ is used.
Rule 64:
‘The’ + Adjective (Community)
When ‘the’ is used before an adjective without a noun following it, it refers to the entire group or community of people who possess that quality.
Such constructions always take a plural verb.
Example: “The honest,” “The brave.”
Rule 65:
Noun + Preposition + Same Noun
When two identical nouns are connected by a preposition, they must both be in their singular form.
The verb accompanying this construction is also singular.
Correct: “Village after village was destroyed…”
Example: “Book after book, city after city, page after page.”
Rule 66:
Irregular Plurals & Special Nouns
Irregular Plurals: Nouns that don’t follow standard pluralization rules.
Compound Nouns: Pluralize the main word in the compound.
Nouns Always Plural: Words that are always plural and take a plural verb (often items with two parts, or collective nouns that are always treated as plural).
Example: “His belongings were lost.”
Nouns Ending in ‘s’ but Singular: Words that appear plural due to an ‘s’ at the end but are actually singular and take a singular verb.
Example: “News was.”
Uncountable Nouns: Words that cannot be counted, have no plural form, and always take a singular verb.
Example: “His luggage was booked.”
Rule 67:
‘Man/Woman’ (Profession/Gender) vs. ‘Male/Female’ (Use/Purpose)
- Man/Woman: Used to specify the gender of a person in a profession.
- Male/Female: Used to indicate the purpose or intended user of a thing, or a biological category.
Example (Male/Female): “Male belt,” “Female doctor.”
Rule 68:
‘Whoever/Whomever’ (Recap)
Whoever/Whomever are used as relative pronouns when there is no explicit antecedent preceding them in the sentence.
Rule 69:
Question Tags – Polarity
The question tag’s polarity (positive/negative) is always opposite to that of the main statement.
- Positive Statement + Negative Tag: “He has worked very hard on this project, hasn’t he?”
- Negative Statement + Positive Tag: “He has not worked hard on this project, has he?”
Rule 70:
Question Tags – ‘Am not I’
The phrase “Am not I” is grammatically incorrect. In question tags, it is always replaced by “Aren’t I?”.
Rule 71:
Question Tags – Negative Words
If the main statement contains a word that carries a negative meaning, the question tag must be positive.
Common Negative Words: Seldom, Barely, Hardly, Scarcely, Rarely, Never, Few, Little.
Example: “They have barely enough money to pay the rent, have they?”
Rule 72:
Question Tags – Tense Agreement
The tense (or auxiliary verb) of the question tag must match the tense (or auxiliary verb) of the main statement.
Rule 73:
Question Tags – ‘Each/Every’ (Plural)
In question tags, singular words like ‘Each,’ ‘Every,’ ‘Everyone,’ ‘Everybody’ are treated as plural and are referred to by “they.” The auxiliary verb in the tag will therefore be plural.
Correct: “Every girl is talented, aren’t they?”
Example: “Everyone will die, won’t they?”
Rule 74:
Question Tags – Collective Nouns (Recap)
The rule for collective nouns in question tags is the same as in subject-verb agreement:
- If the collective noun acts as a single, unified unit, use a singular pronoun (it) and singular verb in the tag.
- If the collective noun’s members act as separate individuals, use a plural pronoun (they) and plural verb in the tag.
Example (Separate): “The audience are taking their seats, aren’t they?”
Rule 75:
Question Tags – Imperative Sentences (Proposals)
For imperative sentences that express a proposal (usually starting with “Let us” or “Let’s”), the question tag is always “Shall we?”.
Rule 76:
Prepositions of Place and Time (In, At, On)
Prepositions of Place (Hierarchy of Size):
- In: Used for large areas, cities, countries, or volumes.
- At: Used for smaller, more specific points or locations.
- On: Used for surfaces.
Example: “I live at Laxminagar.”
Example: “The book is on the table.”
Prepositions of Time (Hierarchy of Specificity):
- At: Used for specific times (e.g., at 4 o’clock, at night).
- On: Used for days of the week and specific dates.
- In: Used for months, years, seasons, or longer periods.
Example: “The party is on Saturday.”
Example: “She was born in 2000.”
No Preposition: Do not use prepositions with words like yesterday, tomorrow, today, last (week/month/year), next (week/month/year), coming (week/month/year).
Rule 77:
‘Good at’ & ‘Both…and’
Good at: Always use the preposition “at” with “good” to indicate proficiency in a skill or subject. Never use “in.”
Correct: “I am good at English.”
Both…and (Recap): The conjunction “both” is always followed by “and,” not “as well as” or “not.”
Rule 78:
‘Lest’ (Conjunction of Negative Purpose)
Lest: Means “otherwise” or “for fear that.”
Structure: Lest is followed by ‘should’ + base form of verb (V1), OR just the base form of the verb (V1).
Never use other modals after ‘lest’.
Incorrect: “Work hard lest you would fail.”
Rule 79:
‘Until’ vs. ‘Unless’
- Until (or Till): Time-oriented. Refers to a point in time or a duration up to which something happens.
- Unless: Action-oriented or condition-oriented. Means “if not” or “except if.”
Example (Unless): “He will not move from here unless you give him the keys of your car.”
Rule 80:
Parallelism
Parallelism requires that similar grammatical structures or parts of speech are used for similar elements in a sentence, especially when connected by coordinating conjunctions.
Conjunctions requiring strict parallelism: And, Or, Not only…but also, Either…or, Neither…nor, Rather…than.
Correct (parallel gerunds): “I like singing, dancing, and walking.”
Incorrect (mixed parts of speech): “He is handsome, clever, and slowly.”
Correct (parallel adjectives): “He is handsome, clever, and smart.”
Rule 81:
Repetition of Prepositions (when required)
If different verbs, adjectives, or nouns in a series require different prepositions, each preposition must be explicitly stated.
Correct: “He is senior to and older than me.”
Example: “This book is different from and better than yours.”
Rule 82:
‘Much Too’ vs. ‘Too Much’
- Too Much: Functions as an adjective and modifies nouns (meaning “a lot of”).
- Much Too: Functions as an adverb and modifies adjectives or other adverbs (meaning “excessively”).
Incorrect (Much Too): “He is too much strong.”
Correct (Much Too): “He is much too strong.”
Rule 83:
Noun Forms with -ing (Gerunds as Nouns)
Some words ending in -ing function as nouns and should be used when a noun is required (e.g., after a possessive adjective).
Incorrect: “His earning is not sufficient.”
Correct: “His earnings are not sufficient.”
Rule 84:
‘Politics’ (Singular vs. Plural)
- When ‘politics’ refers to a field of study or a general concept, it is singular.
- When ‘politics’ refers to someone’s political views or activities, it is plural.
Example (Plural): “His politics are different from mine.”
Rule 85:
‘Mathematics’ / ‘Statistics’ (Singular vs. Plural)
Similar to ‘politics’:
- When referring to a subject or field of study, they are singular.
- When referring to calculations or data, they are plural.
Example (Calculations): “Mathematics are telling that he has made a lot of money.”
Special Noun: Summons
- Summons (singular noun, meaning a call): “A summons was issued.”
- Summonses (plural noun, meaning multiple calls): “Two summonses were issued.”
- Summon (verb, meaning to call): “To summon.”
Rule 86:
‘A/The’ + ‘Of’ + Possessive/Objective Pronoun
‘A’/’An’ + Noun + Of + Possessive Pronoun: When ‘a’ or ‘an’ is used, followed by a noun and ‘of’, the pronoun must be possessive (mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs). This implies “one of many.”
‘The’ + Noun + Of + Objective Pronoun: When ‘the’ is used, followed by a noun and ‘of’, the pronoun must be objective (me, us, him, her, them, etc.). This implies “only one” or a specific one.
Rule 87:
‘Also’ vs. ‘Too’ / ‘As Well’
The adverb “also” cannot be used at the end of a sentence.
Instead, use “too” or “as well” at the end of a sentence to mean “in addition” or “besides.”
Correct: “I have brought a bag too.” OR “I have brought a bag as well.”
Rule 88:
Optative Sentences (Wishes/Blessings/Curses)
In optative sentences (expressing a wish, blessing, or curse), the verb is always in its base form (V1), regardless of the subject’s number. Do not add ‘s’ or ‘es’ to the verb.
Example: “Long live the king.”
Rule 89:
Pseudo-Subjects (‘It’/’There’)
A pseudo-subject (‘It’ or ‘There’) is used when the actual subject of a participle phrase or a general statement is not explicitly stated or is ambiguous, and a grammatical subject is needed.
- ‘It’ is used for weather, time, or when the participle’s subject is different from the main clause’s subject.
- ‘There’ is used to introduce the existence of something.
Correct: “It being a rainy day, I did not go to school.”
Example: “There was a king.”
Rule 90:
Noun + Infinitive (with Preposition)
When a noun is followed by an infinitive phrase (to + V1), the appropriate preposition for that noun must be included after the infinitive if it completes the meaning.
Correct: “I need a pen to write with.”
Incorrect: “The child has no bed to sleep.”
Correct: “The child has no bed to sleep in.”
Rule 91:
Verb Agreement in Compound Predicates
If a subject has multiple verbs or auxiliary verbs in a compound predicate, and these verbs require different forms or auxiliaries, each verb must be explicitly stated in its correct form.
Correct: “He can do and has done it.”
Incorrect: “I have never and will never watch this movie.”
Correct: “I have never watched and will never watch this movie.”
Rule 92:
Nouns Always Plural (Recap)
Certain nouns are always plural in form and take a plural verb.
Example: “His belongings were lost.”
Rule 93:
Nouns Ending in ‘s’ but Singular (Recap)
Certain nouns ending in ‘s’ are grammatically singular and take a singular verb.
Incorrect: “News were published.”
Correct: “News was published.”
Rule 94:
Uncountable Nouns (Recap)
Certain nouns are uncountable, have no plural form, and always take a singular verb.
Example: “His luggage was booked.”
Rule 95:
Conditional Sentences (Recap of Rule 4)
Recap of the three golden rules for conditional sentences, detailing the tense relationships between the condition and result clauses.
- Type 1: If Simple Present, then Will/Can/May/Shall + V1.
- Type 2: If Simple Past, then Would + V1.
- Type 3: If Past Perfect, then Would + Have + V3.
Rule 96:
Possessive Adjective Position with ‘All’ and ‘Both’
The possessive adjective (my, your, his, her, etc.) always comes after ‘all’ and ‘both’.
Correct: “All my students are very talented.”
Incorrect: “My both friends.”
Correct: “Both my friends are very happy.”
Rule 97:
Redundant Conjunctions/Phrases
- As Soon As + Than: Do not use “than” (or “then”) after “as soon as.” A comma is sufficient.
- As + So: Do not use “so” after “as” when “as” means “because.” Use a comma instead.
- Due to the reason that: “Due to” already means “the reason,” so adding “the reason” is redundant.
Correct: “As soon as I complete the work, I will go to his house.”
Incorrect: “As I was not well, so I did not take the class.”
Correct: “As I was not well, I did not take the class.”
Incorrect: “He did not come to the class due to the reason that he is not well.”
Correct: “He did not come to the class due to sickness.”
Rule 98:
‘Quantity’ with ‘Small’/’Less’ (Not ‘Few’/’Little’)
When referring to “quantity,” use “small” or “less.” Do not use “few” or “little” with “quantity.”
Correct: “Small quantity of food was wasted.”
Rule 99:
Confusing Verbs (Forms and Meanings)
Fly (to move in air) vs. Flow (to move as liquid):
- Forms of ‘fly’: fly, flew, flown.
- Forms of ‘flow’: flow, flowed, flowed.
Correct: “Water overflowed the banks.”
Find (to discover) vs. Found (to establish):
- Forms of ‘find’: find, found (V2), found (V3).
- Forms of ‘found’ (to establish): found, founded, founded.
Hang (to execute by hanging) vs. Hang (to suspend):
- Forms of ‘hang’ (execution): hang, hanged, hanged.
- Forms of ‘hang’ (suspend): hang, hung, hung.
Example (Suspend): “The clock was hung on the wall.”
Rule 100:
‘Lie’ (to recline/be situated) vs. ‘Lay’ (to put/place)
Lie (to recline/be situated): The subject itself performs the action of lying down or being in a place. Forms: lie, lay, lain.
Example: “A pen lay on the desk.”
Lay (to put/place something down): The subject places an object. Forms: lay, laid, laid.
Lie (to tell a falsehood): Forms: lie, lied, lied.
Rule 101:
‘Die of’ vs. ‘Die from’
- Die of: Used for the direct cause of death, typically a disease.
- Die from: Used for indirect or external causes of death (e.g., hunger, overwork, injury).
Example (Die from): “He died from hunger.”
Rule 102:
‘Beside’ vs. ‘Besides’
- Beside: A preposition meaning “at the side of” or “next to.”
- Besides: A preposition meaning “in addition to” or “apart from.”
Example (Besides): “He has a car besides a motorbike.”
Rule 103:
Adjectives ending in -ly (from nouns)
Some words ending in -ly are adjectives, not adverbs, because they are formed by adding -ly to a noun.
Examples: Weekly, Yearly, Monthly, Daily, Miserly, Cowardly, Nigardly, Friendly, Manly, Orderly.
When these words need to function as adverbs, use them in a phrase like “in a [adjective] manner/way/basis.”
Correct: “He gives the money in a weekly manner.”
Rule 104:
Position of Adverbs (General)
General Placement: Adverbs can be placed at the beginning of a sentence, between the helping verb and main verb, or at the end of a sentence.
Key Restriction: An adverb never comes directly after the main verb and before its object.
Adverbs of Frequency (often, always, never, sometimes): Best placed between the helping verb and main verb.
Correct: “He often comes to my house.”
‘Also’ Restriction: The adverb ‘also’ cannot be placed at the end of a sentence.
Rule 105:
Order of Adverbs (MPT)
When multiple adverbs are used in a sentence, they generally follow the MPT order.
- M = Manner: (How) e.g., slowly, quickly.
- P = Place: (Where) e.g., here, down the street.
- T = Time: (When) e.g., yesterday, each morning.
Correct: “I walked slowly yesterday.”
Example: “I have to run quickly (Manner) down the street (Place) each morning after breakfast (Time).”
Rule 106:
‘Very’ vs. ‘Much’ (Recap)
Very:
- Used with positive degree adjectives/adverbs.
- Used with present participles (V1+ing) functioning as adjectives.
Much:
- Used with comparative degree adjectives/adverbs.
- Used with past participles (V3) functioning as adjectives.
Rule 107:
Fixed Prepositions (Between…and, From…to)
- Between…and: Always use “and” with “between” to connect two items or a range.
- From…to: Always use “to” with “from” to indicate a range or duration.
Example: “He will distribute sweets from 4 o’clock to 5 o’clock.”
Rule 108:
Nouns Changing Meaning with ‘s’
Adding ‘s’ to certain nouns can change their meaning entirely, rather than just making them plural.
Advice (suggestion) → Advices (information)
Air (gas) → Airs (arrogant behavior)
Wood (timber) → Woods (forest)
Water (liquid) → Waters (sea/water bodies)
Iron (metal) → Irons (chains/fetters)
Arm (body part) → Arms (weapons)
Good (adjective) → Goods (merchandise)
Example: “He lives in the woods.” (forest)
Rule 109:
Superfluous Nouns (Recap)
This rule highlights common redundancies involving nouns.
“Birthday date” → “birthday” or “date of birth”
“Cousin sister/brother” → “cousin”
“Cheater” (as a noun) → “cheat” (as a noun)
“Pickpocket” (as a person) → “pickpocket” (as a noun)
Rule 110:
‘One’s’ vs. ‘His/Her’
- ‘One’s’: Used only when the subject of the sentence is “one.”
- ‘His/Her’: Used for other singular subjects like ‘each,’ ‘every,’ or ‘everyone’ when referring to possession.
Incorrect (His/Her): “Everyone should do one’s duty.”
Correct (His/Her): “Everyone should do his duty.” (or ‘her duty’)
Rule 111:
‘Less’ vs. ‘Fewer’
- Less: Used with uncountable nouns (referring to quantity).
- Fewer: Used with countable nouns (referring to number).
Incorrect (Fewer): “No less than 20 students are waiting…”
Correct (Fewer): “No fewer than 20 students are waiting…”
Rule 112:
‘Elder’ vs. ‘Older’ & Other Confusing Pairs
- Elder: Used for blood relations/family members.
- Older: Used for general age comparison (non-family members, objects).
Example (Older): “Nobody in the office is older than him.”
Incorrect: “My wife is elder than me.”
Correct: “My wife is older than me.”
Other Confusing Pairs (Meaning & Usage):
- Later (time) vs. Latter (second of two in a list).
- Farther (distance) vs. Further (additional, more).
- Nearest (closest in proximity) vs. Next (next in sequence).
- Latest (most recent) vs. Last (final in a series).
Rule 113:
Comparison of Similar Things (Recap)
Comparisons must always be between similar things. Avoid comparing an item to a dissimilar item or category.
Correct: “The mangoes of Delhi are sweeter than those of Bangalore.”
Correct (Alternative): “The mangoes of Delhi are sweeter than Bangalore’s.”
Rule 114:
‘One of the / Each of the / Every one of the’ (Recap)
These phrases are always followed by a plural noun.
Correct: “One of the students.”
Rule 115:
Preposition + Objective Case of Pronoun (Recap)
After any preposition, the objective case of a pronoun (me, us, him, her, them, etc.) is always used.
Correct: “There is a fight between you and him.”
Rule 116:
‘It is’ + Subjective Case of Pronoun
When a sentence begins with ‘It is’ (or ‘It was’) and is followed by a verb or a clause introduced by a relative pronoun, the pronoun immediately after ‘It is’ must be in the subjective case.
Subjective Cases: I, We, You, He, She, It, They.
Correct: “It is he who should be blamed.”
Incorrect: “It is me who is guilty.”
Correct: “It is I who am guilty.”
Rule 117:
Fixed Pairs (Recap)
This rule summarizes several fixed pairs of conjunctions and adverbs that must be used together.
- Such…as: Used for giving an example.
- So…that: Used to show consequence or degree.
- Too…to: Used to show excessive degree leading to a negative outcome.
- Else…but: Always use “but” after “else”.
- Rather…than: Always use “than” after “rather”.
- Other…than: Always use “than” after “other”.
Rule 118:
Apostrophe ‘s’ with Hissing Sound (Recap)
If a singular noun ends in ‘s’ and creates a hissing sound when adding the possessive ‘s’, only add the apostrophe (‘) and omit the additional ‘s’.
Rule 119:
Possessive Pronouns without Apostrophe (Recap)
Possessive pronouns (yours, ours, hers, theirs, his) never take an apostrophe.
Apostrophes are used only with nouns or the indefinite pronoun “one” (e.g., one’s duty).
Correct: “Yours sincerely.”
Rule 120:
Adjectives Not Followed by Nouns
Certain adjectives cannot be directly followed by a noun. They are typically used predicatively (after a linking verb).
Common Adjectives: Able, Unable, Afraid, Asleep, Due, Ready, Alike, Aware, Glad, Sorry, Well, Alone, Ill, Sure, Worth.
Correct: “He is able to do it.”
Example: “The army is ready for action.”
Example: “I am glad to know that.”